Theory, Organization , And Administration: Term of Explanation
The third technical term actually is so friendly, although including in Indonesian language, although the source is western language. The word theory, organization, and administration certainly is not something different for us. But there are nothing worse to explaining the interpretations, in order that a certain kid of starting point which there are more easy when we study idea substantial which consist in thus explanation.
Theory
Theory is come from Latin language theoria (or Greek language theoros) which mean spectator or observer, it is the person who observe, witnessed ,or see. While the verb theoro, means see (look at). The Oxford English Dictionary explaining that theory is : 1. a supposition or system of ideas explaining something; 2. a speculative (esp. fanciful) view; 3. the sphere of abstract knowledge of speculative thought; 4. the exposition of the principles of a science; 5. Math. A collection of propositions to illustrate the principle of a subject. So, theory means the result of a research or person eyesight which then abstraction (and occasionally development in a speculative manner), arranged by proposition, and at this turn used for communicated in a short manner and compact in research result.
In daily life, the word theory frequently contrasted with practical. Maybe someone fed up with his chat foe because it’s too much to suggest what which “should” or “ideal”, whereas the real condition is so far from the concept. Usually afterwards say “Ah, it’s just a theory …!” thus usually we listened. In scientific tradition, this case certainly impossible to happen. Every theory must supported by facts, and fundamentally the facts is the practical it self. A theory will fall it self and reputed and invalid if contrast with the facts. Certainly, how far validity a theory is another problem. The supporters will support furiously that the theory is valid, while the critical will try and didn’t lose persevering to verified that the theory is fault or agree with the fact. But, once again, a theory in scientific context fundamentally always support by the facts or practical.
More far, in a theory contain some concept which mutually connected shaping whole explanation about research phenomenon. In the same manner as definition from Oxford dictionary which already research before, the theory is consist from system of ideas or arranged ideas until shaping an ideas system. The connection between a concept with the other concept usually explain the logic or some certain idea system. It’s often said proportions. The example of proportion : if x then y. It means “if condition of x completed, then y will happened”. Certainly, logic or idea system in a theory is have multiple diverse of many kinds, is not only cause of reason-result. But fundamentally, a theory is relations from a set concept which supported to give an image which desire the theory maker.
There are 2 fundamental design to discriminate assumptions theory makers: 1) Objective design: reality there is in outside inspector. Reality in way objective can be measure, be value, and be compared one same other.
2) Subjective design: reality not separated from inspector. One inspector with other can see different something to same objects
Organization
Organization come from Greek language organon, means “tool” (tool). This word belong to Roman language, as organization and then in the French language (14 century) as organization. Initially explanation isn’t made reference to object or process, but human body or another biology creature. Unequal to mechanical tool, organon consist of parts which arranged and coordinated until able to operate some certain function dynamically. Human’s arm or a grasshopper foot have similarity in dynamic movement function. So, organon made reference to regularity or some certain system which enable a function to operated by human’s body or biology creature. This explanation still ever until now. The word “body’s organ”, “organic”, “organism” usually always refer to biology creature. Latter, this word used for describe arranged or managed many human activity (fine with institution / organization o not ), as a purpose to operate a function or certain purpose. It’s “organization” in modern explanation.
The organization’s main characteristic may brief in 3-P, that is: purpose, people, and plan (Gerloff, 1985:6). Something isn’t said to be if haven’t purposes (purposes), people (people), and plan (plan). In “plan” aspect consist the others character, as system, structure, design, strategy, and process, all of it designed to actuate people substance (people) to reach various purpose which have to decided. Most of all organization definition talk about thus three case related accordingly.
Stephen P. Robbins as follows: An organization is a consciously coordinated social entity, with a relatively identifiable boundary, that functions on a relatively, continous basic to achieve a common goal or set of goals (Robbins, 1990:4) Organization theory part from organization study.
Organization study:
a) Material aspect : effect from economy science, management, technical soon more dominate and usually can give explanation gratified enough. ex: economy transactions, process of production and soon.
b) Human aspect : Organization study not only consist of organization theory but 2 substance : 1. Organizational theory, 2. Organizational Behavior : be studied by psychology discipline.
Administration
Administration deciphrable as method or tool to actuate organization. According Dunsire (1973:1), the beginning word of adminitration is Roman language, administrare, that is composite ad (to) + ministrare (serve). Then, this word is composite noun administration which mean method of assist or let assist (the giving of help). The word ministrare change to minister or cabinet minister, that is the person who help the king or administration leader. In utilizing, this term have two meaning, that is (1) assist, help, or serve, and (2) manage, operate , or arrangge. The noun administer can imagine as servant (servant) or attendant (attendant). So, an administrator imagine as someone who get mandate (from the proprietor of ofganization) to lead, to take care of, manage, and operate organization in the name of organization proprietor, as soon as to reach various purpose which have to prestcripted.
But, if we said administration is a method or tool to actuate organization with task to direct the organization to reach purposes which desirable, so there was other term which intercrosing here, that is management. Management also claimed same case, that is tool for organization to accord effective and efficien in work to reach destiny. So, althought have same task, administration and management have different possition. Administration focused at organization course decision, while management take care of hoe to reach the couse which have been established. Therefore, Hodkingson put administration in top level (the highest organization decision taker), while management at middle-beneath level. These demand ways of thinking which also different. The ways of thinking administration oriented at destiny (end-oriented), while management oriented to tool or method to rach destiny (means-oriented). Here, idea system administration disposed at art (art), while management character is more technical (science).
In practical,every organization member in anything position concerned to administrative aspect althought managerial aspect. In certain degrees the member at beneath level may mix up with administrative aspect, in that the following to establish source and organization destiny. Japan’s enterprise, for example, emphasize at one time in decision removal from middle to beneath level. Their decision making system consensus characteristic, where’d an higher administration or CEO (chief executive officer) although usually won’t decide something when the consensus unreached until at beneath level (Griffin and Pustay, 2005; Hatch, 1997; 114).
Without have made reference to organizations which consensus the emphasize likes Japan’s enterprise, we may conclude here that integrate between administrative and managerial aspect is usual to happen, especially in practical level. Just only, as theoretical differentiation as above just need to do. However, this case influence what and how administration knowledge domain ordered.
For more sharpness, we need a few observe how organization manage by means of combination administrative and managerial aspect.
a. Planning: to determine any purpose, strategy, and direction which want to reach.
b. Organizing: to determine common activities, grouped activities to be jobs, grouped jobs and determine responsibility, and filled jobs with certain people.
c. Directing: focusing subordinate actuate to reach destiny
d. Controlling: monitoring the work and direct efforts to reach destiny.
The basic theoretical for administration knowledge, consist of three main case, that is organization theory, decision maker theory, and leadership theory. While management main theory is organization theory, economic knowledge (micro), and financial. The other scientist, Simon (1957:8) assumption that administration focus is decision maker, that is (1). Function determined every member (2). Authority allocation (3). Action boundary determine which may doing by every member. So administration knowledge occupied different position with management.
Classic Perspective
Classic organization theories which in 18 century often said industry revolution. Organization expansion theory never last with nature factor, that is technology aspect, politic system, social system, cultural system, and demography.
We will certain that organization in modern explanation isn’t appear yet before industry revolution. Industry revolution is the first drop in history, where’d people is introduce with machine. The machines is born new concept, that is factory. The kind of used automatic industry is textile industry. Factory organization reflect task accord functional and hierarchy. In the next phase, organization complexity grow up because of complex production process. It’ cause of detail organization level distribution. This phenomenon is invited some scientist to formulate what, and how organization had better to order.
Modern Perspective
Organization theories in modern perspective is the continuance of classical era thoughts. But if we see in other side, there’s different. Their principal inspiration are regularity and nature works, especially from biology aspect. While thus, classic scientist inspirited by physical aspect. But, the scientist in modern perspective research about other rules which more dynamic.
General Theory System
General theory system made by basic premises, that is unit, hierarchy, self regulation, nature relationship, balance, changing ability and acclimatization.
Built general theory without be bordered discipline science. This theory be arranged by Bertalanffya be built with principle premise (Littlejohn, 1996)
1. Unity and interdependent : in a system be valid that totality is more than summation its element because each of element mutually related in way interdependent.
2. Hierarchy : a system always composed from levels higher complexity. Most big system is supra system and most little system is sub-system.
3. Self regulation : a system always oriented for direction and system set its behavior to achieve directions.
4. circle interrelationship : open system always interaction with area in way reciprocity is exchange item and energy in type output-input.
5. Balanced : Balance of system (homeostatis) ability to defend stability.
6. Change and self adaption : a paradoxical from system is that to hold out, a system must defend balance and change and have adaption power about area dynamic.
7. Equifinality : direction of a system always have character equifinality mean a final condition can attainable with variety method and from go point what different appropriate area condition variety.
Basically, every system is related to another systems, usually in a hierarchy level which explain complex degree. This case explain that every system consist of substances maker. Thus substance, more accurate usually is consist of system it self. That is sub-system. While, every system always be in wider circles. This circles certainly a system, cause of the higher complexity, it’s said as supra-system.
Hierarchy Boulding system (level and characteristic) :
a. Framework: label and terminology
b. Clockwork: cycle character, simple, equilibrium
c. Control: self control, feedback, current information
d. Open: self-maintenance, material processes, energy input, reproduction
e. Genetics: division of labor, differentiation and interdependence, blue print possessed
f. Animal: mobility, self-aware, sensory specialization, complex nerve system, knowledge system
g. Human: self-awareness, making, absorbing, and interpreting symbolic ,time-awareness
h. Social organization: scoring system, sense
i. Transedental: inescapable unknowable
Soft Theory System and Think System
Soft system theory press to used system theory as thinks aspect. Approximation hard system is first step before appear soft system. In soft system, they try consideration solution to have a character technical-economical optimum. In this system, there are new methods like as : system dynamics, soft system methodology, and cognitive map. Approximation soft system give big practical contribution in organization theory is idea of system thinking.
Senge (1990:73), to think system is a discipline see something in way all where we were invited to see points (things) inherent exception connection various things (interrelated). Senge said that, in to think system to occur a warning from dictum “Today’s problem come from yesterday’s solution)
Post-Modern Perspective
Trends postmodern thinkers is to turn the basic assumptions from the previous thinkers. In the post modern perspective the concept of order are ignored, the intent to show a more complex reality, where truth is a truth which can be side by side with the other although both are not the same.
The assumptions that underlie the thinking of the organization and administration experts from classic to modern era who want to "dismantled" by the postmodern approach.
1. Progress or growth is something that is without borders
2. Truth is universal, so the design is valid in one case can be applied to other cases.
3. Needs and human desires are basically the same and can diobjektivasi.
4. Hierarchy and imbalance of power within the organization is natural.
Adjustments made organizations to the conditions of post-industrial
1. Knowledge creation and use of information more important. Bell predicted the number of manufacturing workers decreased, whereas the service sector increased, mainly professionals and technicians.
2. The boundaries between the organization and the environment even more difficult to be maintained
3. The boundaries between units or departments within an organization increasingly blurred
4. Life in organizations characterized by greater uncertainty, contradictions, and paradoxes.
If restricted to a business organization, changes that occur in post-industrial society is in three things, production systems, markets and the production of inadequate investment becomes very important.
An explanation of the four assumptions stated above from the standpoint of post-modernist
First, progress and growth which is not a inhern in society. Post modern approach to question the assumptions of modern and classical thought concerning the progress and growth, particularly the human position is considered the ruler who conquered nature. Second, there are no universal truths. In this post modern constructions worrying thought which are socially and culturally embedded, so that closing one's view to see the other truth. Third, diversity is the basis for life and personal identity of every human being. In the context of organization, excessive emphasis on uniformity or conformity is the enemy of innovation and creativity. Four, the problems of democratization in the organization not only to implement the decision-making procedures that demogratis. Empowerment needs to be done to members who are voiceless, that is of marginal groups, as well as those of the oldest and the youngest in the organization.
In the language of post modern, collage or pieces that are glued together is the description of post-modern organizational theory. In the post modern approach does not build a theory, but is critical of the assumptions underlying a theory perhaps, and unconsciously keep us from seeing the motive or the "great theme" that is being developed in it.
Chris Argyris and Donald Schon emphasized that the organization's managers not only monitor and control the internal effects, but also to examine more deeply about the measures or standards are used when controlling itself. They called double-loop learning, an idea that is similar to the latest systems theory.
Metaphors in Organization Theory
Metaphor is a metaphor or analogy, where we take an object as a means to describe other objects. following metaphors within organizational theory, that is:
Organization is a machine
Max Weber likened the Organization as "bureaucratic machine", as well as Fayol and Taylor use the machine as a metaphor for the organization. Administration and management tasks is to formulate the best design and implement it in such a way that the engine can run efficiently and organizations effectively. The components of this metaphor is a human being, so that if the ethical and moral aspects of attention, then the analogy of the organization as a machine does not much matter. Managers of organizations here like an engineer or mechanic.
Organization is a organism
In organizational theory, organizational analogies as "biological body" is a metaphor from the modern approach, that is systems theory. Biological functions shows that every living thing depends on the environment, as well as organizations. This analogy also shows that the organization must adapt. This gave birth to the theory of contingency as well as strategic thinking about how organizations survive in its environment, such as Porter's competitive strategy. Here, administrators and management likened to the brain or control center of the organism.
Organization is a culture
Organizations can be described as culture. Especially organizations that have been aged longer or organization that is very distinctive characteristics, we will find the various elements of culture there, that is: customs and traditions, stories and myths, symbols, artifacts, and the figures are viewed represent their values. Administrator or manager described as indigenous elders, or cultural agents who guarded and continued the tradition.
Organization is a collage
Collage is a work of art, usually made from pieces of the object (paper, cloth, shells, etc.) affixed to one another, thus forming a separate image that contains its own artistic ideas. This is a metaphor of post modern approach, which emphasizes the organization as text, narrative, or wacan, not a concrete entity which can be palpable. Administrators and management are like artists who draw up and processing the various information and theory, to be artistically arranged in describing the paradoxical and contradictory situation.
Administrative Positions at Each Flow of Thought
If viewed from the era, the science of administration older than organizational studies. Evidently, in the preface Toward a Philosophy of Administration, Hodgkinson said that "administrations is one of the most ancient and pervasive of human behavior." Since humans know the writing, the administration began to be developed as a means regulate the government. But now the administration began to be used to help run the various personnel and payroll transactions.
Here, the relation between administrative science and theory of organization in the three periods, namely the period of classical, modern, and post-modern.
Classical period
In this period, the relationship between the administration and organization theory is very close. Administration provide study materials experts in formulating the theories about the organization and administration. In this era of relatively stable condition, so the survival and growth of the organization is determined by the leadership skill to handle internal problems. Whereas the concept presented administration by Hodgkinson where more Outward looking, the role of management in organizational life is more dominant than the administration, because with high stability and the design are made in accordance with the demands of the environment can work well for long periods of time.
Modern period
In the modern period, organizational theory provides many contributions to the development of administrative science. However, when referring to the concept Hodgkinson, the administration is more dominant role than the management, because the development of systems theory makes a relationship with environmental organizations very closely. In addition, decreased environmental stability.
Post-modern period
Furthermore, the formulation of the points into a more specific context, namely the various aspects of management of the organization, according to Hodgkinson management administrative science dichotomy.
1. Organizational theory is only a fraction of what is required by the science of administration. For example, the micro aspects of organizational behavior as the human factor in the organization not addressed in organization theory.
2. Duties and administrative functions through changes. In the classical period, the duties and functions of the administration is implementing "mandate" from the owner organization. The approach used is prosesual approach. In this era of managerial functions is more dominant than administrative functions. In the modern period, the duties and administrative functions to shift the decision-making. The analysis tools is the SWOT (strenght, Weakness, opportunity, and threath), strategic planning, BCG Matrix, analysis of the value chain, and others. In the postmodern period, duties and functions of the administration more focused on leading change, which means experienced and also has changed in the process. Emphasis is to build a shared vision and its main working tool is the values and symbolic aspects.
3. Aspects of ambiguity and subjectivity increasingly felt in the post-industrial society. The rapid development of computer technology is one of the technological factors that trigger changes in various sectors of life, including the organization and administration. Characteristics of post-industrial society is characterized by uncertainty, paradox and contradiction, the duties and administrative functions that are classic and modern is not removed just like that.
4. The relationship between theory and practice becomes even closer. In the language Hodgkinson, "administration is philosophy in action" (1978:3). This illustrates the distance between ideas and action closer, with other words an individual administrator is required to be active learners.
5. Values are an increasingly important for organizations today. Authentic values for the organization is a balance that must exist outside of considerations of efficiency and effectiveness.
Nur Muflikhah
Business Administration
105030201121006
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